Introduction

Water is an essential resource for developing societies, particularly those in the eastern Mediterranean basin. Through the millennia, the dependence of the region's inhabitants on an organized supply of water resulted in the development of methods of water accumulation and routing that constitute outstanding social and technological achievements.

The water system of the Bronze Age settlement of Jawa in northeast Jordan, for example, demonstrates the highly developed hydraulic capabilities of the area’s inhabitants, who were able to effectively collect and store water in an otherwise arid desert environment. The archaeological remains of Jawa’s complex water system include deflection areas, gravity canals, dams, and pools.

Much later, during the Roman Period, impressive aqueduct systems were built, with the most notable examples being the aqueducts connected to Caesarea and Jerusalem. In the late first century BCE, King Herod began to bring water to Caesarea by aqueduct from springs located far to the east of the city. Throughout subsequent centuries of Roman rule, this water system was expanded and an additional aqueduct was built to increase the supply of water. The aqueducts to Jerusalem built during the same period brought water over a distance of more than 35 kilometres from springs in the Hebron Mountains to the city. This sophisticated water system drew its source from Artas, where a complex of three impressive reservoirs was built. These pools continued to supply water to the inhabitants of Jerusalem until the 20th century.

Indeed, the development of water installations in the diverse periods and climates of the region, from desert to Mediterranean, can be seen as a primary factor in both urban and agricultural growth.

The early “industrial revolutions” of the Levant developed from technological advances in the extraction and processing of some of the region’s natural resources, primarily copper ore and building stone.

The Great Rift Valley and neighbouring desert areas possess a wide range of minerals; copper ore was mined in the Arabah Valley during the Chalcolithic, Bronze, Iron and Roman periods. Copper was a very important metal in the ancient world both for its own value and for its use in the production of bronze. Over 10,000 ancient mining shafts have been found in the Timna Valley and archaeological evidence indicates that Wadi Feinan was been exploited since the Early Bronze Age. Its giant mounds of more than 200,000 tons of slag attest to copper production on an industrial scale.

With regard to stone, the distinctive geological structure of the various hill regions offered excellent material for the quarrying of building materials. Jerusalem became famous for its white malaki "Royal" limestone stone, Petra for its red sandstone, and Tiberias and Beit Shean for their black basalt, used both for vernacular architecture and monumental buildings. With technological advances, stone was transported over long distances to areas previously known for their mud-brick structures. Large quarries were opened around the urban sites, particularly Jerusalem where a zenith was reached in the monumental buildings of King Herod.

The mines and quarries of our region are of particular importance for understanding the development of technology, exchange systems, and emerging social complexity beginning in the 4th and 3rd millennia BCE and continuing throughout antiquity.

Borders and peripheral areas have always played an important role in the human history of our region. War and subsequent political changes have resulted in the continual re-defining of borders while the defensive systems built along them have often been an integral component of the social and political identity of the inhabitants. At the same time, those borders were never completely impermeable and were often places where social, technological and religious innovation penetrated from outside. The adoption of these new ideas and technologies also had a central place in the history of the region.

In contrast to the current perception of borders as a discrete boundary line, in the Roman and Byzantine Periods, the eastern border area of the empire was an extensive zone composed of a hierarchy of settlements integrated with fortresses and roads. Known as the limes, it ran north-south on the eastern ridge of the Jordan Valley.

In the Negev region, archaeologists have also uncovered remains of many settlements that integrated fortress and strongholds connected by a road system to defend the population from incursions from the south and from Sinai. Two examples of frontier settlements are Gaza at the Mediterranean Sea, which served as an important crossroads and connection to the Via Maris, and the Ein Bokek stronghold and observation post overlooking the southwestern shore of the Dead Sea.

These and other ancient sites of frontier defense and interaction offer a unique glimpse at the common heritage of boundaries, still a major theme in our region today.

While the techniques of mosaic art in our region developed gradually from the repertoire of Hellenistic and Roman craftsmen, by the Late Roman Period and even more so with the rise of Byzantium, the use of mosaics became a widespread and technically advanced method of reproducing a wide variety of artistic and geometric patterns on the floors and walls of private and public buildings alike.

Among the most famous is the sixth century CE mosaic map, preserved in the floor of St. George’s Greek Orthodox Church in Madaba. While only a third of the original map has survived, it is the oldest existing depiction of the Holy Land and contains a wealth of information used by historians to piece together the region's history.

The Tzippori mosaics include the floor of a patrician’s house with the beautiful female figure known as the “Venus of the Galilee.” In the community’s synagogue, a mosaic floor illustrates the Roman zodiac corresponding to the months of the Jewish calendar and features both biblical scenes and Roman figures.

Hisham's Palace, located near Jericho, contains numerous architectural and decorative elements which illustrate the strong Roman influence on Umayyad art. The most famous of its mosaics depicts a large tree with four deer, one of which is being attacked by a lion. Other mosaics feature impressive geometric patterns.

The ancient mosaic craftsmen of our region spread both technological innovations and traditional artistic motifs. They were masters of developing art forms to correspond to the cultural and religious preferences of each period.

Olive trees were planted widely throughout the Mediterranean basin, particularly in hilly regions, and remain closely identified with the region to this day. Olive oil was produced in a wide range of presses and used for food preparation, medicine, and religious rituals. The three Abrahamic traditions all attribute great significance to olive oil: the Jewish holiday of Hanukah recounts the miracle of the oil lamps; Christians read of the anointing of Jesus with oil; and the Koran and Hadith (the words and deeds of the Prophet Muhammad) mention the olive as a blessed tree and olive oil as a medicinal remedy.

The processing of grapes and their by-products also hold a prominent position in Jewish and Christian traditions, and other locally produced foodstuffs such as dibs (concentrated grape syrup), malban (a sweet made of cornstarch, sugar paste and pistachios), and zabib (raisins) were of great economic significance to the early communities throughout the region.

Sugar cane production and processing began in the region in the Umayyad period. The Crusaders developed the process of producing molasses and sugar in cones for export to Europe. Important sites of ancient sugar production include Tawhim al-Suker, located near Jericho, the Manot Mills, located north of Acco and the Naqe Mills near Ghor al-Safi in southern Jordan, which all utilize the same industrial techniques. These mills were in use for almost five centuries.

The harnessing of industrial innovation to the agricultural base of the region was critical to its socio-economic development, changing the landscape and contributing to the advancement of the local population.

The railway system completed in our region at the beginning of the 20th century by the Ottomans represents a shared heritage of communications and transport that continues to influence the life of the region. The surviving tracks, stations, and other railroad installations are the tangible reminders of the geo-political, social and technological changes that transformed life of all the inhabitants of the region in the early 20th century.

After the inauguration of a rail link between Jaffa and Jerusalem in 1892, the more extensive Hejaz railway was begun in 1900 by order of the Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II under the supervision of German engineers. Its initial objective was to link Damascus with the Holy Cities of the Arabian Peninsula, transporting Muslim pilgrims to Mecca and Medina. The town of, Ma'an in Jordan was one of the primary stations of pilgrims on their way south, and was thus termed during the early period the “city of pilgrims.”

Later, tracks were extended to join the port city of Haifa to the Syrian town of Dra'a, with many stations along the route including Gesher/ Jesir al-Majami’, whose name is connected to the bridge over the Jordan River. Later still, in 1913-1914, a line was established from Nablus/Shechem to Damascus/Silat al-Daher, Afula and Haifa. A tunnel in the area of ’Atare is an extraordinary example of the effort involved in this early railway project, symbolizing the coming of the modern age and allowing for the dissemination of many other technological advances throughout the region.